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Artículo de investigación
The use of flashcards in english vocabulary learning for young
learners
El uso de tarjetas didácticas en el aprendizaje de vocabulario en inglés para
niños
Katherine Johana Padilla Suntaxi*
Universidad Técnica de Cotopaxi
Cotopaxi - Ecuador
katherine.padilla6772@utc.edu.ec
https://orcid.org/0009-0007-6366-0507
Juan Tomas Tipán Ayala
Universidad Técnica de Cotopaxi
Cotopaxi - Ecuador
juan.tipan0575@utc.edu.ec
https://orcid.org/0009-0001-3763-1717
Olga Lorena González Ortiz
Universidad Técnica de Cotopaxi
Cotopaxi - Ecuador
olga.gonzalez@utc.edu.ec
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0064-1601
*Correspondencia:
katherine.padilla6772@utc.edu.ec
Cómo citar este artículo:
Padilla, K., Tipán, J., & González, O. (2026).
The use of flashcards in english vocabulary
learning for young learners. Revista de
Investigación Educativa Niveles, 3(2), 114-125.
https://doi.org/10.61347/rien.v3i2.110
Recibido: 5 de junio de 2026
Aceptado: 10 de julio de 2026
Publicado: 18 de agosto de 2026
Abstract:
Flashcards are widely recognized as a pedagogical resource in foreign
language teaching because they facilitate vocabulary recognition, practice, and retention
through visual association and repeated exposure. Vocabulary acquisition is a
fundamental component of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learning; however,
many students experience difficulties in remembering and using new words due to
limited exposure to interactive and motivating learning strategies. Therefore, this study
aimed to determine the effect of using flashcards on English vocabulary acquisition and
student participation among young learners. A quantitative approach with a descriptive
pre-experimental design was applied using a single-group pre-test and post-test
structure. The study involved 13 students who participated in English learning activities
supported by flashcards. Data were collected through vocabulary assessments and an
observation checklist using a three-point Likert scale to evaluate students’ learning
behaviors during the intervention. The results showed an improvement in students’
vocabulary performance after the implementation of flashcard-based activities, with
higher levels of recognition, participation, and classroom interaction in the post-test
evaluation. It was concluded that flashcards represent a useful instructional resource for
supporting vocabulary learning among young EFL learners by promoting visual
association, active participation, and meaningful engagement in classroom activities.
Keywords: Foreign language, flashcards, learning, strategies, vocabulary.
Resumen: Las flashcards son reconocidas como un recurso pedagógico utilizado en la enseñanza
de lenguas extranjeras debido a su capacidad para facilitar el reconocimiento, práctica y retención
del vocabulario mediante la asociación visual y la exposición repetida. La adquisición de
vocabulario constituye un componente fundamental en el aprendizaje del inglés como lengua
extranjera; sin embargo, muchos estudiantes presentan dificultades para recordar y utilizar
nuevas palabras debido a la limitada aplicación de estrategias interactivas y motivadoras. Por ello,
el presente estudio tuvo como objetivo determinar el efecto del uso de flashcards en la adquisición
del vocabulario en inglés y la participación de estudiantes jóvenes. Se aplicó un enfoque
cuantitativo con un diseño preexperimental de alcance descriptivo, mediante un esquema de un
solo grupo con evaluación pretest y postest. La investigación contó con la participación de 13
estudiantes que desarrollaron actividades de aprendizaje del inglés apoyadas en flashcards. La
recolección de datos se realizó mediante evaluaciones de vocabulario y una lista de observación
con escala tipo Likert de tres niveles para analizar los comportamientos de aprendizaje durante la
intervención. Los resultados evidenciaron una mejora en el desempeño del vocabulario después de
la aplicación de las actividades con flashcards, así como mayores niveles de participación,
reconocimiento de palabras e interacción durante las clases. Se concluye que las flashcards
constituyen un recurso didáctico útil para favorecer el aprendizaje del vocabulario en estudiantes
jóvenes de inglés como lengua extranjera, al promover la asociación visual, la participación activa
y experiencias de aprendizaje significativas.
Palabras clave: Aprendizaje, estrategias, lengua extranjera, tarjetas didácticas, vocabulario.
Copyright: Derechos de autor 2026
Katherine Johana Padilla Suntaxi, Juan
Tomas Tipán Ayala, Olga Lorena González
Ortiz.
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional
Creative Commons Atribución-
NoComercial 4.0.
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1. Introducción
Vocabulary acquisition is a fundamental aspect of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learning
because it enables students to develop communicative competence and improve their ability to
understand and produce oral and written messages. A sufficient vocabulary repertoire facilitates
reading comprehension, listening skills, and meaningful interaction in different communicative
contexts. Therefore, vocabulary development represents a central objective in foreign language
education, particularly during childhood, when learners establish the linguistic foundations for future
language proficiency.
Learning new vocabulary requires strategies that promote recognition, association, repetition, and
long-term retention. In this regard, flashcards have been recognized as an effective pedagogical
resource because they combine visual representation and linguistic information, facilitating the
relationship between words and their meanings. Lei and Reynolds (2022) demonstrated that word
cards contribute to vocabulary learning through repeated exposure and active retrieval processes,
which strengthen lexical recognition and knowledge consolidation.
The effectiveness of flashcards has been reported in different educational contexts and among
diverse groups of learners. Suryani et al. (2022) found that the implementation of flashcards improved
vocabulary acquisition among young learners by facilitating the association between images and new
words. Similarly, Firdausah and Sari (2022) indicated that flashcards increased students’ motivation,
participation, and interest during vocabulary activities, reducing difficulties related to memorizing
unfamiliar words.
The cognitive benefits of visual learning also support the use of flashcards in foreign language
instruction. According to Pickering et al. (2022), visual memory plays a significant role in vocabulary
development because visual stimuli facilitate the encoding, storage, and retrieval of linguistic
information. Consequently, materials that integrate images and words, such as flashcards, may
enhance students’ ability to understand and retain new vocabulary through meaningful associations.
With the advancement of educational technologies, digital flashcards have expanded the
possibilities for vocabulary instruction by incorporating interactive and mobile learning environments.
Boroughani et al. (2023) reported that digital flashcards promote vocabulary development while
strengthening learners’ self-regulation through autonomous learning practices. Likewise, Parahiba
and Nurkhamidah (2024) found that digital flashcards improved students’ attention, engagement, and
vocabulary achievement in English learning contexts.
Although previous studies have demonstrated positive outcomes regarding flashcard
implementation, most research has been conducted in urban educational environments or contexts
with greater access to technological resources. Consequently, limited evidence exists regarding their
application among children in local communities and rural educational settings, particularly in
Ecuador. This gap highlights the importance of investigating accessible and adaptable strategies that
respond to the specific characteristics of young English learners.
In Ecuadorian educational contexts, English instruction frequently continues to rely on traditional
methodologies that may limit interaction, motivation, and active participation among students. For
this reason, the integration of visual and interactive resources represents an opportunity to promote
more meaningful learning experiences. Previous findings suggest that flashcards can support
vocabulary acquisition by increasing students’ involvement and facilitating the comprehension of new
lexical items (Briceño & Rojas, 2022; Castro & Zelada, 2025; Chamorro, 2018).
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For young learners, vocabulary retention represents a considerable challenge because acquiring
new words requires continuous exposure, cognitive processing, and opportunities for meaningful
practice. Flashcards provide these conditions by allowing students to connect visual representations
with linguistic forms, strengthening memory and facilitating recall. Teng (2024) emphasized that
vocabulary learning in young learners is influenced by cognitive factors such as working memory,
which reinforces the importance of strategies based on repeated interaction with lexical information.
Additionally, recent evidence indicates that combining visual resources with engaging activities can
positively influence vocabulary development. Milosavljevic and Reynolds (2024) found that flashcard-
based instruction contributed to receptive and productive vocabulary learning among young English
learners, demonstrating the relevance of interactive approaches. These findings reinforce the need to
implement teaching strategies that integrate cognitive, visual, and motivational elements.
Despite the growing evidence supporting flashcards as a vocabulary learning strategy, further
research is required in specific educational contexts involving children with limited exposure to
English instruction. Particularly, studies conducted in community-based environments remain scarce,
creating a need for empirical evidence regarding the effectiveness of flashcards in promoting
vocabulary acquisition and student participation among young learners.
Therefore, this study aims to determine the effect of using flashcards on English vocabulary
acquisition and student participation among children aged 5 to 12 years. Specifically, it seeks to
implement flashcard-based activities to facilitate vocabulary comprehension and strengthen oral
expression through interactive classroom practices. The findings may contribute to the development
of effective teaching strategies for English learning in similar educational contexts.
2. Metodología
This research adopted a quantitative approach with a descriptive scope and a pre-experimental design
based on a single-group pre-test and post-test structure. The study was conducted to determine
changes in students’ vocabulary learning after implementing flashcard-based activities during English
classes. Quantitative data were collected and analyzed systematically to identify variations in
vocabulary performance and learning behaviors associated with the use of flashcards.
The pre-experimental design was considered appropriate because the study evaluated the same
group of participants before and after the intervention. The research was conducted in a natural
educational setting during regular English learning sessions with young learners. According to
Govindan (2013), non-experimental and descriptive approaches allow researchers to analyze existing
conditions and describe phenomena as they occur in real contexts.
The descriptive scope allowed the researchers to characterize students’ vocabulary learning behaviors
during the implementation of flashcards. The observed aspects included attention, participation,
pronunciation, vocabulary recognition, interaction, comprehension, and retention during classroom
activities. This type of approach was relevant because descriptive research provides valuable information
about educational processes developed in authentic learning environments (Guevara et al., 2020).
The research was carried out in the San Buenaventura neighborhood, an urban parish located in the
northern area of Pujilí canton, Cotopaxi province, Ecuador. The study was conducted within the
framework of community service activities developed by students from the Technical University of
Cotopaxi. These activities were designed as English learning sessions in which flashcards were used
as the main instructional resource.
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The participants consisted of thirteen children between 5 and 12 years old who voluntarily attended
the English learning sessions offered through the community service program. The group included
students from different levels of basic education who participated in vocabulary learning activities
supported by flashcards. A purposive sampling method was applied because participants were
selected according to specific characteristics related to the research objectives.
According to Tajiko et al. (2024), purposive sampling is a non-probabilistic technique that allows
researchers to intentionally select participants based on their relevance to the phenomenon under
investigation. In this study, participant selection was justified because all students were enrolled in
English learning sessions where flashcards were implemented as the main teaching resource, allowing
the researchers to evaluate their influence on vocabulary learning.
Data Collection Instrument
Students’ vocabulary learning behaviors were assessed through an observation checklist designed by
the researchers. Observation was selected as the main data collection technique because it enabled the
researchers to identify students’ responses, participation levels, and interaction patterns during
English learning activities conducted in a natural classroom environment.
The checklist consisted of fourteen indicators related to vocabulary learning behaviors, including
vocabulary recognition, oral participation, pronunciation, attention, curiosity, collaboration,
comprehension, and vocabulary retention. These indicators were established based on previous studies
that highlighted the relevance of repetition, visual association, motivation, and active participation in
vocabulary acquisition among young learners (Lei & Reynolds, 2022; Suryani et al., 2022; Teng, 2024).
Each indicator was evaluated using an observation sheet that allowed the researchers to record the
frequency of students’ behaviors during flashcard activities. A three-point Likert scale was applied to
classify the observed behaviors according to their frequency of occurrence: 3 = Always, 2 = Sometimes,
and 1 = Never.
The observation scale facilitated the organization and quantitative analysis of classroom behaviors
by determining how frequently students demonstrated vocabulary learning processes during
flashcard activities. Through this instrument, the researchers identified changes in students’
participation, vocabulary recognition, and interaction throughout the intervention.
Data Collection Procedure
Data collection was conducted during English classes in which flashcards were implemented as the
main instructional material for vocabulary teaching. The observation checklist was applied at two
different moments: before and after the intervention, allowing the researchers to compare students’
vocabulary learning behaviors throughout the research process.
During each session, the researchers observed students’ participation in vocabulary recognition
activities, pronunciation exercises, image-word association tasks, and collaborative learning activities.
The checklist was completed while students interacted with the learning materials, ensuring that the
recorded information reflected their performance in the classroom context.
Attention was given to students’ concentration, ability to associate images with vocabulary items,
participation in oral activities, and retention of previously introduced words. The implementation of
flashcards provided an interactive and multisensory learning environment that allowed researchers to
analyze changes in students’ motivation, participation, and vocabulary acquisition.
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Table 1 presents the observation checklist used to assess students’ vocabulary learning behaviors
during flashcard-based English activities. The instrument consisted of 14 indicators grouped around
four main dimensions: attention and engagement, vocabulary recognition and comprehension, oral
production, and collaborative participation. Each indicator evaluated observable behaviors related to
students’ interaction with flashcards, including visual attention, interest, vocabulary identification,
image-word association, pronunciation, speaking participation, and peer collaboration. The behaviors
were measured using a three-point Likert scale: Always (3), Sometimes (2), and Never (1), which
allowed the researchers to quantify the frequency of students’ responses during classroom activities
and compare their performance before and after the intervention.
Table 1
Observation checklist for assessing vocabulary learning behaviors with flashcards
N.º Elementos
Siempre
(3)
A veces
(2)
Nunca
(1)
1
Los niños mantienen atención visual hacia la flashcard durante su
presentación.
2
Los niños muestran interés observable (mirada fija, postura atenta) al utilizar
las flashcards.
3 Los niños muestran curiosidad hacia las imágenes presentadas.
4
Los niños identifican correctamente el significado de la palabra al observar la
imagen.
5 Los niños asocian correctamente la imagen con el significado de la palabra.
6
Los niños comprenden con facilidad el vocabulario presentado durante la
actividad.
7
Los niños responden correctamente cuando se les pide identificar la palabra
mostrada.
8
Los niños pueden identificar correctamente la palabra cuando se muestra
nuevamente la flashcard.
9 Los niños pronuncian correctamente las palabras nuevas.
10
Los niños intervienen en actividades de speaking utilizando el vocabulario
nuevo.
11 Los niños participan activamente en las actividades de speaking.
12 Los niños realizan preguntas relacionadas con las imágenes de las flashcards.
13 Los niños colaboran con sus compañeros durante actividades con flashcards.
14 Los niños corrigen o apoyan a sus compañeros durante la actividad.
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Escala de valoración
Siempre = 3
A veces = 2
Nunca = 1
3. Resultados
The results obtained from the pre-test and post-test evaluations allowed the researchers to identify
changes in students’ English vocabulary performance after the implementation of flashcard-based
activities. The comparison between both measurements showed an improvement in students’ scores,
indicating positive changes in vocabulary recognition, comprehension, and participation during
English learning activities.
Pre-test Results
Table 2 presents the students’ performance before the implementation of flashcard activities. The
results showed that most participants were initially located in the “Acceptable” performance level,
with 61.5% of students obtaining scores between 4 and 6 points. Additionally, 15.4% of participants
achieved the “Good” level and another 15.4% reached the “Excellent” level, while 8.0% remained in
the “Needs Improvement” category.
These findings indicate that, before the intervention, most students demonstrated basic vocabulary
knowledge but still experienced difficulties in recognizing and recalling English words. The presence
of students in lower performance categories suggested the need for instructional strategies that could
strengthen vocabulary retention, comprehension, and active participation during English classes.
Table 2
Pre-test results of students’ vocabulary performance before the implementation of flashcards
Performance level Score range Percentage Students
Needs improvement 0–3 8.0% 1
Acceptable 4–6 61.5% 8
Good 7–8 15.4% 2
Excellent 9–10 15.4% 2
Total 0–10 100% 13
Note. The pre-test was scored on a scale from 0 to 10. Performance levels were classified as follows: 0–3 = Needs Improvement, 4–6 =
Acceptable, 7–8 = Good, and 9–10 = Excellent.
Post-test Results
Table 3 shows students’ performance after the implementation of flashcard activities. The results
indicated that all participants improved their performance, with 53.8% of students reaching the
“Excellent” category and 46.2% achieving the “Good” category. No participants remained in the
“Acceptable” or “Needs Improvement” levels after the intervention.
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These results suggest that the implementation of flashcards was associated with improvements in
vocabulary performance, particularly in word recognition and comprehension. The increase in
students achieving higher performance levels indicates that the intervention contributed to
strengthening vocabulary learning processes during English activities.
Table 3
Post-test results of students’ vocabulary performance after the implementation of flashcards
Performance level Score range Percentage Students
Needs improvement 0–3 0.0% 0
Acceptable 4–6 0.0% 0
Good 7–8 46.2% 6
Excellent 9–10 53.8% 7
Total 0–10 100% 13
Note. The post-test was scored on a scale from 0 to 10. Performance levels were classified as follows: 0–3 = Needs Improvement, 4–6 =
Acceptable, 7–8 = Good, and 9–10 = Excellent.
Comparison Between Pre-test and Post-test Results
The comparison between pre-test and post-test scores is presented in table 4. Before the intervention,
61.5% of students were classified at the “Acceptable” level, whereas after the implementation of
flashcards, this category decreased to 0%. Similarly, the proportion of students in the “Good” category
increased from 15.4% to 46.2%, while the “Excellent” category increased from 15.4% to 53.8%.
The comparison demonstrates a positive change in students’ vocabulary performance after
participating in flashcard-based activities. The reduction of students in lower performance categories
and the increase in higher achievement levels indicate that flashcards supported vocabulary learning
by providing visual associations, repetition opportunities, and interactive classroom experiences.
Table 4
Comparison of students’ vocabulary performance before and after the implementation of flashcards
Performance level Score range Pre-test students Pre-test % Post-test students Post-test %
Needs improvement 0–3 1 8.0% 0 0.0%
Acceptable 4–6 8 61.5% 0 0.0%
Good 7–8 2 15.4% 6 46.2%
Excellent 9–10 2 15.4% 7 53.8%
Total 0–10 13 100% 13 100%
Note. The pre-test and post-test were scored on a scale from 0 to 10. Performance levels were classified as follows: 0–3 = Needs Improvement,
4–6 = Acceptable, 7–8 = Good, and 9–10 = Excellent.
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Graphical Representation
Figure 1 illustrates the differences between students’ performance before and after the implementation
of flashcards. The graph shows a shift from lower and intermediate performance categories in the pre-
test toward higher achievement levels in the post-test.
Before the intervention, most students were concentrated in the “Acceptable” category, whereas
after the use of flashcards, all participants reached either the “Good” or “Excellent” levels. This change
suggests that flashcard-based activities provided meaningful support for vocabulary learning by
facilitating word recognition, visual association, and repeated practice.
Figure 1
Comparison of students’ vocabulary performance before and after the implementation of flashcards
4. Discusión
The results of this research indicated that the implementation of flashcard-based activities was
associated with improvements in students’ English vocabulary performance, as well as increased
participation and classroom interaction. The comparison between the pre-test and post-test scores
revealed a positive change in students’ achievement levels, with all participants moving from lower
performance categories toward the “Good” and “Excellent” levels after the intervention. These
findings suggest that visual and interactive materials may support vocabulary recognition, retention,
and processing in EFL learning environments, particularly among young learners.
The findings of this study are consistent with those reported by Suryani et al. (2022), who found
that flashcards support vocabulary acquisition by facilitating the association between images and
words. This relationship was also observed in the present research, as students demonstrated greater
recognition of vocabulary items after participating in activities based on visual representations.
Similarly, Firdausah and Sari (2022) reported that flashcards increase students’ motivation and reduce
boredom during vocabulary learning activities. In agreement with these findings, the students in this
study showed greater involvement, attention, and willingness to participate during classroom
activities supported by flashcards.
Furthermore, Lei and Reynolds (2022) emphasized that word cards facilitate vocabulary learning
through repeated exposure and active retrieval processes, strengthening both receptive and productive
lexical knowledge. The improvement observed between the pre-test and post-test results in this study
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may be explained by these mechanisms, since students repeatedly interacted with vocabulary items
through recognition, pronunciation, and image-word association activities. Therefore, flashcards
provided opportunities for meaningful practice and continuous reinforcement of newly acquired
words.
The results also support Teng’s (2024) cognitive perspective, which highlights the relevance of
working memory and cognitive processes in vocabulary learning among young EFL learners. In this
study, the use of visual stimuli appeared to facilitate students’ attention and recall of new words,
suggesting that flashcards contributed to the connection between visual information and linguistic
meaning. Likewise, Milosavljevic and Reynolds (2024) demonstrated that visually supported learning
activities contribute to vocabulary development and retention among young learners. These findings
reinforce the relevance of incorporating multisensory strategies that combine visual input, repetition,
and active student engagement.
Beyond vocabulary acquisition, the findings revealed positive changes in students’ classroom
participation and motivation. The observation of students’ behaviors during the intervention showed
increased interaction, collaboration, and involvement in oral activities when flashcards were
incorporated into English lessons. These results are related to the findings of Boroughani et al. (2023),
who highlighted that digital flashcards could promote active learning processes and self-regulation
among language learners. Although the present study used physical flashcards, both approaches share
the principle of facilitating autonomous and meaningful interaction with vocabulary.
From a pedagogical perspective, the findings suggest that flashcards represent a valuable
instructional resource for supporting vocabulary learning in EFL contexts. Their visual and
manipulative characteristics provide opportunities for students to engage with language through
multiple forms of representation, which may be particularly beneficial for children who require
concrete and interactive learning experiences. Therefore, this research contributes to existing evidence
supporting the integration of accessible visual resources in English teaching environments.
However, the interpretation of these findings should consider the characteristics of the research
design, particularly the use of a single experimental group without a control group. Consequently, the
results demonstrate an improvement associated with the implementation of flashcards, but they do
not allow establishing definitive causal relationships. Future studies could incorporate larger samples,
control groups, and longer intervention periods to further examine the effectiveness of flashcards in
different educational contexts.
In summary, the findings suggest that flashcards constitute an effective and motivating resource for
supporting English vocabulary learning among young learners. The results highlight the importance
of implementing interactive and visually supported strategies, particularly in contexts where
traditional instructional approaches may limit student engagement. By promoting vocabulary
recognition, participation, and meaningful classroom interaction, flashcards may contribute to the
development of more dynamic and learner-centered EFL learning experiences.
5. Conclusiones
The results of this study indicated that the implementation of flashcards was associated with
improvements in students’ English vocabulary learning and the development of essential language
skills related to vocabulary recognition, pronunciation, and oral interaction. The comparison between
pre-test and post-test scores showed a positive progression in students’ performance levels, as most
participants moved from “Acceptable” categories toward “Good” and “Excellent” achievement levels
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after participating in flashcard-based activities. These findings suggest that flashcards provided
meaningful opportunities for vocabulary practice through visual association, repetition, and active
classroom participation.
The analysis of classroom observations and vocabulary assessments revealed that students
demonstrated greater involvement and interaction during English learning activities supported by
flashcards. These findings are consistent with previous studies by Suryani et al. (2022) and Firdausah
and Sari (2022), who highlighted that flashcards contribute to vocabulary acquisition by increasing
motivation, reducing learning difficulties, and promoting active participation in EFL classrooms.
Therefore, flashcards represented not only a resource for reinforcing lexical knowledge but also a
strategy that encouraged positive attitudes toward English learning.
The findings of this research highlight the relevance of incorporating innovative and student-
centered approaches in EFL contexts, particularly among young learners who benefit from visual,
interactive, and multisensory learning experiences. The use of flashcards facilitated the association
between words and images, which may support cognitive processes involved in vocabulary
recognition, memory retention, and oral production. These results are aligned with the perspectives of
Teng (2024) and Milosavljevic and Reynolds (2024), who emphasized the importance of visual input
and cognitive processes in vocabulary development.
In conclusion, this study suggests that flashcards constitute an accessible and effective instructional
resource for supporting English vocabulary learning among young learners. Their visual and interactive
characteristics promoted greater student engagement and facilitated meaningful vocabulary practice
within the classroom environment. Although further research with larger samples and comparative
designs is required, the findings provide evidence supporting the integration of flashcards as a
complementary strategy for enhancing vocabulary learning and participation in EFL contexts.
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ISSN: 3073-1119
Katherine Johana Padilla Suntaxi
, Juan Tomas Tipán Ayala, Olga Lorena González Ortiz
124
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Revista de Investigación
Educativa Niveles
https://niveles.esprint.tech
Vol. 3 N° 2, julio-diciembre 2026 (114-125)
ISSN: 3073-1119
Katherine Johana Padilla Suntaxi
, Juan Tomas Tipán Ayala, Olga Lorena González Ortiz
125
Transparencia
Conflicto de interés
Los autores declaran que no existen conflictos de interés de naturaleza alguna como parte de la
presente investigación.
Fuente de financiamiento
Los autores financiaron completamente la investigación.
Declaración sobre el uso de Inteligencia Artificial (IA)
Durante la elaboración de este artículo se utilizó inteligencia artificial como apoyo técnico y analítico
para la revisión lingüística, la corrección gramatical, la claridad expositiva, la organización de ideas y
el análisis de la información, bajo supervisión y validación humana permanente. No se empleó para
generar contenido científico original, argumentos, resultados, interpretar hallazgos o producir
conclusiones, ni para sustituir el juicio crítico. La responsabilidad sobre la integridad, veracidad y
contenido final del estudio recae exclusivamente en quien o quienes suscriben el artículo.
Contribución de autoría
Katherine Johana Padilla Suntaxi: Metodología, validación, análisis formal, investigación, gestión de
datos, visualización, redacción - preparación del borrador original, redacción - revisión y edición,
financiamiento, administración del proyecto, recursos, supervisión.
Juan Tomas Tipán Ayala: Conceptualización, metodología, software, validación, análisis formal,
investigación, gestión de datos, redacción - preparación del borrador original, redacción - revisión y
edición, financiamiento, recursos.
Olga Lorena González Ortiz: Validación, análisis formal, gestión de datos, redacción - preparación del
borrador original, redacción - revisión y edición, financiamiento.
Los autores contribuyeron activamente en el análisis de los resultados, revisión y aprobación del
manuscrito final.
