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Artículo de investigación
The use of stories as a pedagogical strategy to improve reading
comprehension
El uso de cuentos como estrategia pedagógica para mejorar la comprensión
lectora
Laydi Anabel Morocho Chipugsi*
Universidad Técnica de Cotopaxi
Latacunga - Ecuador
laydi.morocho3130@utc.edu.ec
https://orcid.org/0009-0009-2244-8571
Mónica Lisbeth Guato Pila
Universidad
Técnica de Cotopaxi
Latacunga - Ecuador
monica.guato0499@utc.edu.ec
https://orcid.org/0009-0002-7130-2842
José Ignacio Andrade Morán
Universidad Técnica de Cotopaxi
Latacunga - Ecuador
jose.andradem@utc.edu.ec
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4294-2736
*Correspondencia:
laydi.morocho3130@utc.edu.ec
Cómo citar este artículo:
Morocho, L., Guato, M., & Andrade, J.
(2026). The use of stories as a pedagogical
strategy to improve reading
comprehension.
Revista de Investigación
Educativa Niveles, 3(2), 72-90.
https://doi.org/10.61347/rien.v3i2.107
Recibido: 12 de junio de 2026
Aceptado: 15 de julio de 2026
Publicado: 14 de agosto de 2026
Abstract: This study aimed to evaluate changes in the reading comprehension
performance of EFL students following an instructional intervention based on local
legends from Pujilí. The intervention incorporated A2-level reading activities adapted
from Cambridge A2 Flyers-type tasks combining culturally contextualized narrative
texts with skimming and scanning strategies within Communicative Language Teaching
and Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT). A quantitative, one-group pretest–posttest
pre-experimental design was employed with 22 fourth-semester students enrolled in the
Pedagogy of National and Foreign Languages program at the Technical University of
Cotopaxi, Pujilí Extension. Students worked with short narrative texts based on
traditional legends from Pujilí, created by university students and faculty members and
adapted to the A2 instructional level through pre-reading, while-reading, and post-
reading activities. Reading-comprehension performance increased from a pretest mean
of 5.62 to a posttest mean of 9.69. The paired-samples t test showed a statistically
significant difference between the two measurement points, t(21) = 8.465, p < .001, and
the Wilcoxon signed-rank test produced the same significant result, p < .001. The findings
indicated substantial within-group improvement in reading-comprehension
performance after the intervention. However, because the study used a one-group pre-
experimental design, the results should not be interpreted as definitive evidence of
causality.
Keywords: Comprehension, learning, performance, reading, strategy.
Resumen: Este estudio tuvo como objetivo evaluar los cambios en el desempeño de la comprensión lectora de
estudiantes de inglés como lengua extranjera (EFL) después de una intervención pedagógica basada en leyendas
locales de Pujilí. La intervención incorporó actividades de lectura de nivel A2 adaptadas a tareas tipo Cambridge
A2 Flyers y combinó textos narrativos contextualizados culturalmente con estrategias de skimming y scanning,
dentro de los enfoques de Enseñanza Comunicativa de Lenguas y Enseñanza de Lenguas Basada en Tareas
(TBLT). Se empleó un diseño cuantitativo preexperimental de un solo grupo con pretest y posttest, aplicado a 22
estudiantes de cuarto semestre de la carrera de Pedagogía de los Idiomas Nacionales y Extranjeros de la
Universidad Técnica de Cotopaxi, Extensión Pujilí. Los estudiantes trabajaron con textos narrativos breves
basados en leyendas tradicionales de Pujilí, elaborados por estudiantes y docentes universitarios y adaptados al
nivel A2 mediante actividades de prelectura, lectura y poslectura. El desempeño en comprensión lectora aumentó
de una media de 5,62 en el pretest a 9,69 en el posttest. La prueba t para muestras relacionadas mostró una
diferencia estadísticamente significativa entre ambas mediciones, t(21) = 8,465, p < .001, resultado respaldado por
la prueba de rangos con signo de Wilcoxon, p < .001. Los hallazgos indicaron una mejora sustancial dentro del
grupo en el desempeño de la comprensión lectora después de la intervención; sin embargo, debido al diseño
preexperimental, los resultados no deben interpretarse como evidencia definitiva de causalidad.
Palabras clave: Aprendizaje, comprensión, estrategia, lectura, rendimiento.
Copyright: Derechos de autor 2026 Laydi
Anabel Morocho Chipugsi, Mónica Lisbeth
Guato Pila, José Ignacio Andrade Morán.
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional
Creative
Commons Atribución-
NoComercial 4.0.
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73
1. Introduction
Research on reading comprehension in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) has received renewed
attention because students do more than decode words when they read. They also select relevant
information, connect ideas, infer meanings, recognize vocabulary in context, and monitor their
comprehension throughout the reading process.
Therefore, reading comprehension depends on learners’ linguistic knowledge, familiarity with
vocabulary and text structure, and the reading strategies they employ during reading activities.
Second-language reading involves coordinated lower- and higher-level processes rather than a single
decoding operation (Grabe & Yamashita, 2022). Duke et al. (2021) likewise explain that comprehension
instruction integrates vocabulary development, knowledge building, strategy use, and understanding
of text structure.
Affective factors also deserve consideration. Dang (2024) reported a relationship between foreign-
language reading anxiety and reading strategies, while Dang and Nguyen (2023) examined the
association between reading anxiety and reading test performance. Together, these contributions
support explicit and guided reading-strategy instruction, while acknowledging that emotional
responses may also influence learners’ reading processes and assessment performance.
A2 Flyers provides a useful assessment framework for this study because it includes reading
activities based on familiar topics, short texts, vocabulary recognition, and communicative situations
appropriate to its proficiency level. Cambridge University Press & Assessment (2024) describes A2
Flyers as part of the Young Learners English qualifications and indicates that these examinations are
aligned with the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR).
Cambridge University Press & Assessment (2024) also presents the A2 Flyers Word List as a
resource designed to support learners’ understanding of everyday spoken and written English.
Compared with the broader CEFR descriptors, A2 Flyers provides specific guidance for assessment
activities by connecting proficiency level, vocabulary, task type, and reading purpose.
Reading at the A2 level requires more than recognizing isolated words. Learners need to identify
the main idea of a short text, locate specific information, interpret simple relationships between events,
follow a narrative sequence, and infer the meaning of vocabulary from context. Tsang and Yeung
(2024) found that young EFL learners’ reading self-efficacy and perceived value of storybooks were
associated with vocabulary knowledge, word recognition, reading fluency, and reading
comprehension.
Similarly, Hidayat et al. (2024) reported that digital storytelling can enhance students’ reading
experiences when texts are combined with images, sequencing, and interactive activities. These
findings help explain why narrative texts can serve as meaningful instructional resources for
developing guided reading-comprehension activities.
In this study, the reading materials were based on local legends from Pujilí created by university
students and faculty members. These legends were used as culturally contextualized narrative texts
because they contain characters, settings, actions, events, conflicts, and narrative sequences that
students can follow while reading.
Their use also connects reading practice with students’ academic and local contexts, thereby
increasing the contextual relevance of classroom reading activities. Pillaga (2021) examined the use of
fairy tales in reading comprehension and applied standardized Cambridge tests as pretests and
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posttests. The study reported that fairy tales helped learners develop an interest in reading, connect
ideas, and understand texts more easily.
Although fairy tales and local legends are not the same narrative genre, both share elements such
as characters, settings, events, sequences, conflicts, and resolutions. Therefore, Pillaga Riofrío’s (2021)
study provides a relevant reference for understanding how short narrative texts may support reading
comprehension in EFL contexts.
Stories, understood in this study as short narrative texts, may support A2 learners because they
usually present characters, actions, places, and events in a sequence that students can follow. However,
the use of stories alone does not necessarily lead to improved comprehension; their pedagogical value
depends on how reading activities are structured and guided.
Gonzalez-Torres and Vargas-Saritama (2025) showed that reflective reading journals helped A2
EFL students engage with texts and monitor comprehension. In contrast, Husnul et al. (2025) focused
more directly on skimming and scanning as strategies for improving reading comprehension among
EFL learners.
Although the studies emphasize different instructional processes, both provide evidence relevant
to the design of structured narrative-based reading activities. Skimming and scanning are particularly
relevant to A2 Flyers-type reading tasks because they enable learners to read with a specific purpose.
Skimming refers to reading rapidly to identify the general meaning, main idea, or overall situation of
a text.
Scanning involves reading selectively to locate specific information, such as names, places,
actions, objects, numbers, or other relevant details. Zurita and Castro (2025) reported that the use of
skimming and scanning supported the development of reading comprehension among EFL students.
Husnul et al. (2025) similarly found improvements after learners practiced both strategies in reading
activities.
Meta-analytic evidence further supports the use of reading strategies. Sun et al. (2021) identified
positive associations between several categories of reading strategies and reading comprehension,
whereas Yapp et al. (2021) reported favorable effects of multistrategy interventions on second-
language reading comprehension.
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) provide
complementary methodological principles for integrating these strategies with local legends. Ismail et al.
(2023) reported that task-based instruction can support reading comprehension when learners engage in
meaningful tasks rather than isolated exercises. Nguyen (2022) also found improvements in reading
comprehension among non-English-major university students who received task-based instruction.
Taken together, these findings support implementing reading activities in which students predict
content, skim for general meaning, scan for specific information, compare responses, discuss
interpretations, and complete comprehension-oriented tasks. Against this background, the present
study examines reading-comprehension performance following an instructional intervention based on
local legends from Pujilí.
The intervention incorporates short narrative texts aligned with A2 Flyers-type reading tasks and
explicitly integrates skimming and scanning as reading strategies within communicative and task-
based activities. The study was conducted with fourth-semester students from the Pedagogy of
National and Foreign Languages program at the Technical University of Cotopaxi, Pujilí Extension.
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75
A quantitative, pre-experimental, one-group pretest–posttest design was used to compare students’
reading-comprehension performance before and after the instructional intervention.
Accordingly, the objective of this study was to evaluate changes in the reading comprehension
performance of A2 EFL students after an instructional intervention based on local legends from Pujilí,
integrating skimming and scanning within communicative and task-based reading activities. The
study addresses the following research questions:
RQ1. What level of reading comprehension performance do A2 EFL students demonstrate before
and after instruction based on local legends from Pujilí? RQ2. Is there a statistically significant
difference between students’ pretest and posttest reading comprehension scores following the
communicative and task-based intervention? RQ3. How does students’ performance vary across the
different parts of the A2 Flyers-type reading test based on local legends from the canton of Pujilí before
and after the intervention?
Reading comprehension is a receptive skill that requires learners to construct meaning from written
texts. It involves more than word recognition, as students must connect ideas, identify relevant
information, understand vocabulary in context, follow sequences, and make simple inferences. In EFL
learning, reading comprehension is particularly important because learners interact with texts through
developing linguistic resources. Therefore, they require guided practice, appropriate materials, and
reading strategies that facilitate the construction of meaning.
In this study, reading is understood as the process of constructing meaning from local legends used
as narrative texts in the EFL classroom. Through these texts, students identify the general idea, locate
explicit information, recognize vocabulary in context, follow sequences of events, and make basic
inferences. Tsang and Yeung (2024) explain that reading proficiency involves interrelated abilities such
as vocabulary knowledge, word reading, fluency, and comprehension. Therefore, students not only
recognize isolated words but also connect words, sentences, and events to construct the overall
meaning of a text.
Within the present research, reading was linked to comprehension using local legends, which
encouraged students to move from word recognition toward meaning construction within culturally
contextualized narratives. The independent variable of this study is the use of local legends as
pedagogical reading materials. It refers to the incorporation of short narratives from Pujilí into English
reading instruction.
These legends were used to connect reading practice with students’ cultural and territorial context
while guiding them through activities involving prediction, vocabulary recognition, identification of
main ideas, location of specific information, narrative sequencing, and basic inference. In this research,
local legends were not supplementary materials; rather, they constituted the core instructional
resource used throughout the intervention.
The dependent variable is reading-comprehension performance. It was operationalized through the
scores obtained on the adapted A2 Flyers-type pretest and posttest, each organized into six reading
parts and expressed on a 0–10 scale. The assessed components included identification of main ideas,
location of specific information, vocabulary in context, narrative sequencing, and basic inference.
Cultural references were incorporated into the instructional materials but were not treated as a
measured outcome.
Short narrative texts can support reading comprehension because they usually present characters,
settings, actions, conflicts, and events in an organized sequence. This narrative structure may help
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learners organize information and use contextual clues to interpret vocabulary and relationships
between events. In this study, the narrative texts used during the intervention consisted of local
legends from Pujilí adapted to the A2 level. Their use connected reading practice with students’
academic, cultural, and territorial contexts.
Rather than functioning as additional reading material, the legends served as the basis for guided
comprehension activities throughout the instructional intervention. Previous Ecuadorian research
provides relevant evidence regarding the use of narrative texts for reading comprehension. Pillaga
(2021) examined fairy tales as reading materials and used standardized Cambridge assessments as
pretests and posttests.
The study reported that fairy tales helped learners develop interest in reading, connect ideas, and
understand texts more easily. Although fairy tales and local legends represent different narrative
genres, both contain elements such as characters, settings, events, sequences, conflicts, and resolutions.
Therefore, Pillaga Riofrío’s (2021) findings provide a relevant precedent for examining the pedagogical
use of short narrative texts in EFL reading comprehension.
Skimming is a reading strategy used to rapidly identify the general meaning or main idea of a text.
In this study, students applied skimming during their initial reading of the local legends from Pujilí.
This strategy allowed them to identify the topic, main situation, characters, and overall sequence of
events before answering comprehension questions.
Zurita and Castro (2025) indicate that skimming can help learners organize their initial approach to
a text by directing attention toward its general meaning rather than every individual detail. Evidence
from reading-strategy instruction also indicates improvements in reading performance among
university EFL and L2 learners (Li et al., 2022; Yapp et al., 2023).
Scanning is a selective reading strategy used to locate specific information within a text. During the
intervention, students applied scanning to identify names, places, actions, objects, and explicit details
in the local legends from Pujilí. This strategy supported the identification of relevant textual evidence
when answering reading-comprehension questions.
Husnul et al. (2025) reported improvements in EFL learners’ reading comprehension after the
implementation of skimming and scanning strategies, indicating that these techniques can help
students search for information with a defined reading purpose. Communicative Language Teaching
(CLT) can support reading comprehension by encouraging learners to interact with both texts and their
classmates rather than completing reading questions exclusively as isolated activities.
Although reading involves individual cognitive processing, classroom interaction may help
students compare interpretations, identify overlooked information, clarify meanings, and justify their
responses. In this study, communicative activities enabled learners to use English to discuss textual
information, compare interpretations, and explain their answers.
Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) provided the instructional structure for organizing the
intervention around meaningful reading tasks. Ismail et al. (2023) reported that task-based instruction
had a positive effect on reading performance when learners engaged in meaningful tasks. Nastiti et al.
(2023) similarly found improvements in reading comprehension in areas such as summarizing,
inference-making, and vocabulary interpretation.
These findings support the organization of reading instruction around pre-reading, while-reading,
and post-reading tasks with clearly defined comprehension outcomes. In the present study, local
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legends, skimming, scanning, CLT, and TBLT were integrated as complementary components of the
instructional intervention.
The local legends from Pujilí provided the narrative material; skimming supported global
comprehension; scanning facilitated the location of specific information; communicative activities
promoted discussion and meaning negotiation; and task-based instruction organized the reading
process around specific outcomes. Together, these components guided students to predict content,
identify general and specific information, connect events, compare responses, justify interpretations,
and reflect on the process of constructing meaning from written texts.
2. Methodology
Research Approach and Design
The study followed a quantitative approach and employed a one-group pretest–posttest pre-
experimental design. This approach was selected because the study required numerical comparison of
students’ reading comprehension performance before and after the instructional intervention.
Creswell and Creswell (2022) indicate that quantitative research is appropriate when numerical data
are used to examine differences or changes in measured variables.
The pre-experimental design was selected because one intact class was available for the
intervention. Therefore, random assignment and the inclusion of a separate control or comparison
group were not possible. Consequently, the study focused on within-group changes between two
measurement points rather than establishing definitive causal effects of the intervention.
The objective of the study was to evaluate changes in students’ reading comprehension performance
after an instructional intervention based on local legends from Pujilí. The intervention integrated
culturally contextualized narrative texts, skimming and scanning strategies, Communicative
Language Teaching (CLT), and Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT).
The instructional activities were aligned with the characteristics of A2 Flyers-type reading tasks,
including identification of general meaning, retrieval of specific information, vocabulary in context,
narrative sequencing, and basic inference. Cambridge University Press & Assessment (2024) was
used as a reference framework for the structure and characteristics of the reading activities
developed for the study.
The intervention was conducted over four weeks. The same group completed a pretest before the
instructional intervention and a posttest after its completion. This procedure allowed students’ reading
comprehension performance at the beginning and end of the intervention to be compared using the
same assessment dimensions and scoring criteria.
Research Design
A one-group pretest–posttest pre-experimental design was employed, represented as follows:
O₁ → X → O₂
Where:
O₁ = Reading-comprehension pretest
X = Instructional intervention based on local legends
O₂ = Reading-comprehension posttest
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The research process was organized into four stages. First, a reading-comprehension pretest was
administered to establish students’ initial performance. Second, the instructional intervention based
on local legends from Pujilí was implemented. Third, the posttest was administered after completion
of the intervention. Finally, pretest and posttest scores were statistically compared to examine changes
in reading-comprehension performance between the two measurement points.
Participants
The participants were 22 undergraduate students enrolled in the fourth semester of the Pedagogy of
National and Foreign Languages program at the Technical University of Cotopaxi, Pujilí Extension.
The sample was selected through non-probability convenience sampling because the participants
belonged to the intact class assigned to and available for the instructional intervention. The
instructional and assessment materials were developed according to the reading demands and task
characteristics associated with the A2 level of the CEFR and A2 Flyers.
Because the available information did not include an independent proficiency test administered
specifically for participant selection, A2 was treated as the instructional and assessment reference level
rather than as an independently verified proficiency classification for each participant. All participants
received the same instructional intervention and completed both the pretest and the posttest.
Data Collection Instruments
Two instruments were used to measure reading-comprehension performance: a pretest and a
posttest. Both assessments were adapted following the structure and task characteristics of
Cambridge A2 Flyers reading activities and were aligned with reading skills associated with the
CEFR A2 level. The assessments were not official Cambridge examinations. Rather, their format and
task characteristics were used as a reference for developing study-specific reading assessments based
on narrative texts.
Both instruments contained 43 items organized into six reading sections and assessed the same
reading-comprehension dimensions. These dimensions included main-idea identification, retrieval of
specific information, vocabulary in context, narrative sequencing, and basic inference. The pretest and
posttest used the same number of items, assessment dimensions, scoring criteria, and 0–10 score
conversion procedure.
However, different narrative texts were used in each assessment to reduce the likelihood of
participants reproducing answers from memory. Thus, comparability between the two assessments
was established in terms of structure, assessed components, task characteristics, and scoring
procedures. No claim of psychometric equivalence between the two forms was made because such
equivalence was not independently tested in the present study. No questionnaire or observation
checklist was included because the primary outcome of the study was quantitatively defined as
reading comprehension performance.
Adaptation of the Instrument
The reading assessments were adapted from the task characteristics and organizational structure of A2
Flyers rather than reproduced as official Cambridge tests. The adaptation preserved the targeted
reading processes and general task format while replacing the original texts with narrative materials
appropriate to the purposes of the study.
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The adapted assessments maintained equivalent structural characteristics across pretest and
posttest, including the number of items, number of sections, reading dimensions assessed, and scoring
criteria. Different texts were deliberately employed to minimize recall effects while maintaining
comparable assessment demands.
Cambridge University Press & Assessment (2024) served as the methodological reference for the
format and reading demands considered during the adaptation process. Because the available study
documentation did not report expert judgment, pilot testing, or an independent validation study, the
instruments should be described as adapted and structurally comparable rather than formally
validated.
3. Results
The analysis included 22 participants who completed both the pretest and the posttest. Both
assessments were adapted from A2 Flyers-type reading tasks and included 43 readingcomprehension
items organized into six parts. Scores were expressed on a 0–10 scale. To ensure comparability between
the two measurement points, the primary pretest and posttest scores were calculated as the arithmetic
mean of the six reading parts.
An additional pretest score was available from the original scoring procedure and was retained only
as a descriptive reference. This score had a mean of 5.53, whereas the six-part pretest mean was 5.62.
Because the posttest was organized and scored by six reading parts, the six-part pretest mean of 5.62
was selected as the consistent baseline for the pretest–posttest comparison and subsequent inferential
analyses.
Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics for the reference pretest score, the six-part pretest mean,
the six-part posttest mean, and the individual pretest–posttest difference. The table includes the mean,
median, standard deviation, minimum and maximum values, range, and coefficient of variation,
allowing comparison of both central tendency and score dispersion before and after the intervention.
Table 1
Descriptive statistics for reading-comprehension scores
Measure n Mean Median SD Min Max Range CV (%)
Reference pretest score 22 5.53 4.90 2.51 2.00 9.60 7.60 45.45
Pretest six-part mean 22 5.62 5.25 2.36 2.50 9.50 7.00 41.97
Posttest six-part mean 22 9.69 9.75 0.33 8.92 10.00 1.08 3.37
Posttest–pretest difference 22 4.08 3.83 2.26 0.50 7.33 6.83 55.41
Note. n = number of valid cases; SD = standard deviation; CV = coefficient of variation. Scores are expressed on a 0–10 scale. The six-part
pretest and posttest means were used as the primary measures for comparative analyses because both were calculated using the same scoring
structure.
The descriptive results showed a clear increase in reading-comprehension performance between
the two measurement points. The six-part pretest mean was 5.62 (SD = 2.36), whereas the posttest mean
increased to 9.69 (SD = 0.33). The mean difference between the two measurements was 4.08 points,
indicating a substantial numerical increase in students’ reading-comprehension scores after the
instructional period.
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Score variability also changed considerably. The standard deviation decreased from 2.36 in the
pretest to 0.33 in the posttest, while the coefficient of variation decreased from 41.97% to 3.37%. These
results indicate that posttest scores were not only higher but also considerably more homogeneous, as
most participants obtained values close to the upper limit of the 0–10 scale.
The reference pretest score showed a mean of 5.53 (SD = 2.51), which was close to the six-part pretest
mean of 5.62. However, this value was retained only as a descriptive reference and was not used in the
inferential analysis. Overall, the descriptive evidence addressed the study objective by showing higher
reading-comprehension performance after the intervention. Nevertheless, because the study used a
one-group pre-experimental design, the results should be interpreted as pretest–posttest change
within the observed group rather than definitive evidence of causality.
Table 2 presents the distribution of participants’ reading-comprehension scores across three
operational score ranges before and after the intervention. The ranges were established as below 7.00,
from 7.00 to 8.99, and from 9.00 to 10.00. The six-part pretest mean and the six-part posttest mean were
used as the primary measures for this comparison.
The reference pretest score was retained only for descriptive purposes and was not considered the
main baseline for interpretation, because the six-part mean provided the consistent metric used
throughout the comparative analysis.
Table 2
Distribution of reading-comprehension scores by operational ranges
Range Pre-n Pre % Post n Post % Reference pre-n Reference pre %
< 7.00 14 63.6 0 0.0 15 68.2
7.00–8.99 7 31.8 1 4.5 5 22.7
9.00–10.00 1 4.5 21 95.5 2 9.1
Note. Pre = six-part pretest mean; Post = six-part posttest mean. The reference pretest score is included only as supplementary descriptive
information.
Before the intervention, 14 participants (63.6%) obtained scores below 7.00, seven participants
(31.8%) scored between 7.00 and 8.99, and only one participant (4.5%) reached the 9.00–10.00 range.
After the intervention, no participant remained below 7.00. One participant (4.5%) scored between 7.00
and 8.99, while 21 participants (95.5%) reached the 9.00–10.00 range.
This shift indicates a marked upward change in the distribution of reading-comprehension scores
between the pretest and posttest. The change was particularly evident among participants who had
lower initial scores, as these students had greater potential for numerical improvement within the
0–10 scale.
The reference pretest distribution showed a similar initial pattern, with 15 participants (68.2%)
below 7.00, five (22.7%) between 7.00 and 8.99, and two (9.1%) in the highest range. However, the six-
part pretest distribution remained the primary basis for comparison because it was calculated using
the same scoring procedure as the posttest.
Overall, the distribution results reinforced the descriptive findings presented in Table 1, showing
a transition from more dispersed initial scores to predominantly high and concentrated posttest
scores. These findings contributed to answering the first research question, as they demonstrated
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that participants’ reading-comprehension performance was substantially higher after the
intervention.
To address the second research question, the normality of the pretest scores, posttest scores, and
paired differences was examined before conducting the inferential analysis. Because the paired-
samples t test assumes that the distribution of the difference scores is approximately normal, particular
attention was given to the posttest–pretest difference. The Shapiro–Wilk test indicated that the
distribution of the paired differences did not significantly deviate from normality, W = 0.913, p = .055
(table 3).
However, the posttest scores showed a significant departure from normality, W = 0.853, p = .004,
which was consistent with the strong concentration of scores near the upper limit of the scale. For this
reason, the paired-samples t test was complemented with the Wilcoxon signed-rank test as a
nonparametric robustness analysis.
Table 3
Normality and paired-comparison tests
Test Statistic df p
Shapiro–Wilk, pretest mean 0.912 — .051
Shapiro–Wilk, posttest mean 0.853 — .004
Shapiro–Wilk, posttest–pretest difference 0.913 — .055
Paired-samples t test 8.465 21 < .001
Wilcoxon signed-rank test 0.000 — < .001
Note. The paired-samples t test was interpreted primarily based on the normality of the difference scores. The Wilcoxon signed-rank test was
used as a complementary nonparametric analysis.
The second research question examined whether students’ reading-comprehension scores differed
significantly between the pretest and posttest. The normality analysis showed that the pretest
distribution was close to the conventional significance threshold, W = 0.912, p = .051, whereas the
posttest distribution significantly departed from normality, W = 0.853, p = .004.
More importantly for the paired comparison, the distribution of the difference scores did not show
a statistically significant departure from normality, W = 0.913, p = .055. Accordingly, a paired-samples
t test was considered appropriate for evaluating the mean pretest–posttest difference. The paired-
samples t test showed a statistically significant difference between the two measurement points, t (21)
= 8.465, p < .001. This result indicated that posttest reading-comprehension scores were significantly
higher than pretest scores.
The Wilcoxon signed-rank test also produced a statistically significant result, p < .001, providing
additional support for the direction of the pretest–posttest change. The convergence of the parametric
and nonparametric analyses strengthened the evidence that participants obtained higher reading-
comprehension scores after the intervention.
These findings directly answered the second research question, demonstrating a statistically
significant difference between pretest and posttest reading-comprehension performance. However,
because the study employed a one-group pre-experimental design, the statistical difference should be
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interpreted as an observed within-group change rather than as definitive evidence that the
intervention alone caused the improvement.
To complement the statistical significance tests, the magnitude of the pretest–posttest change was
examined using the mean difference, its 95% confidence interval, and standardized effect-size
measures. Cohen’s dz was used to estimate the standardized within-participant change, whereas
Hedges' g provided an additional standardized estimate based on the variability observed across both
measurement points. The confidence interval for the mean difference was also calculated to indicate
the precision of the estimated change in reading comprehension scores (table 4).
Table 4
Effect size and confidence interval for the pretest–posttest difference
Indicator Value 95% CI lower 95% CI upper
Mean difference 4.08 3.08 5.08
Cohen’s dz 1.805 — —
Hedges' g 2.339 — —
Note. CI = confidence interval. Positive values indicate higher posttest than pretest scores. Cohen’s dz represents the standardized within-
participant change, whereas Hedges' g provides an additional standardized estimate of the pretest–posttest difference.
The mean posttest–pretest difference was 4.08 points, with a 95% confidence interval ranging
from 3.08 to 5.08 points. Because the confidence interval did not include zero, the estimated change
was consistently positive and was compatible with the statistically significant results reported in
Table 3.
Cohen’s dz was 1.805, indicating a large standardized within-group change between the pretest
and posttest measurements. Hedges' g was 2.339, which also indicated a substantial standardized
difference between the two measurement points.
These effect-size estimates were consistent with the descriptive results, which showed an increase
from a pretest mean of 5.62 to a posttest mean of 9.69. However, the magnitude of the standardized
effects should be interpreted cautiously because posttest scores were highly concentrated near the
upper limit of the 0–10 scale.
The posttest standard deviation was only 0.33, and most participants obtained scores close to 10.00.
This pattern indicated a possible ceiling effect and restricted posttest variability. Therefore, the
standardized effect sizes should be considered together with the raw mean difference and its
confidence interval rather than interpreted in isolation.
Overall, these results provided additional evidence for the second research question, showing that
the pretest–posttest difference was not only statistically significant but also substantial in magnitude
within the observed group. Nevertheless, because the study followed a one-group pretest–posttest pre-
experimental design, the effect sizes represent the magnitude of the observed within-group change
and should not be interpreted as definitive causal effects attributable exclusively to the intervention.
To address the third research question, students’ performance was examined separately across the
six parts of the A2 Flyers-type reading-comprehension assessment. For each section, pretest and
posttest means, standard deviations, mean differences, percentage change, paired-samples t-test
results, Wilcoxon signed-rank test results, and Cohen’s dz were calculated. This analysis allowed the
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pattern of change to be examined across the different sections of the assessment rather than relying
exclusively on the overall score (table 5).
Table 5
Performance by test part before and after the intervention
Part Pre M Pre SD Post M Post SD Mean diff. % change t df p (t) p (W) dz
Part 1 6.95 2.61 9.50 0.80 2.55 36.6 4.306 21 < .001 .001 0.918
Part 2 6.27 3.40 9.64 0.79 3.36 53.6 4.492 21 < .001 < .001 0.958
Part 3 8.36 2.01 9.66 0.64 1.30 15.5 2.700 21 .013 .011 0.576
Part 4 6.45 2.46 9.36 1.05 2.91 45.1 5.712 21 < .001 < .001 1.218
Part 5 2.92 3.73 10.00 0.00 7.08 242.0 8.902 21 < .001 < .001 1.898
Part 6 2.73 3.73 10.00 0.00 7.27 266.7 9.142 21 < .001 < .001 1.949
Note. M = mean; SD = standard deviation; dz = Cohen’s standardized effect size for paired measurements. The results are interpreted by test
part and should not be equated with isolated reading subskills unless such correspondence was established in the assessment design.
The results showed higher posttest scores across all six parts of the reading-comprehension
assessment. The largest mean differences were observed in Parts 5 and 6. Part 5 increased from M =
2.92 (SD = 3.73) to M = 10.00 (SD = 0.00), representing a mean difference of 7.08 points. Part 6 showed
a similar pattern, increasing from M = 2.73 (SD = 3.73) to M = 10.00 (SD = 0.00), with a mean difference
of 7.27 points. These sections showed the greatest numerical gains and had the lowest initial mean
scores, suggesting that participants had more room for improvement in these parts.
Parts 1, 2, and 4 also showed substantial increases. Part 1 increased by 2.55 points, Part 2 by 3.36
points, and Part 4 by 2.91 points. Part 3 showed the smallest change, increasing from M = 8.36 to M =
9.66, with a mean difference of 1.30 points. The smaller change in Part 3 was consistent with its
comparatively high initial score, which limited the amount of possible numerical improvement within
the 0–10 scale. The paired-samples t tests indicated statistically significant pretest–posttest differences
in all six parts, with p values ranging from .013 to < .001.
The Wilcoxon signed-rank tests showed the same overall pattern, providing additional support for
the observed increases across the six test sections. Cohen’s dz values ranged from 0.576 in Part 3 to
1.949 in Part 6, indicating that the magnitude of the within-group change varied across the assessment
sections. The largest standardized changes were observed in Parts 5 and 6, whereas Part 3 showed the
smallest effect size. However, the posttest means of 10.00 with SD = 0.00 in Parts 5 and 6 indicate
complete concentration at the upper limit of the scale.
This pattern suggests a ceiling effect in these two sections, which should be considered when
interpreting both the percentage changes and the standardized effect sizes. Overall, the analysis
answered the third research question by showing that higher posttest performance occurred across all
six parts of the assessment, although the magnitude of change differed between sections. The findings
should be interpreted as performance by test part rather than as direct evidence of isolated reading
subskills, because the available score structure did not establish that each section measured only one
specific skill such as skimming, scanning, inference, vocabulary, or sequencing.
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To complement the group-level analyses, individual pretest–posttest changes were examined for
each of the 22 participants. Table 6 presents each participant’s pretest mean, posttest mean, absolute
difference, and percentage change, allowing the consistency of the score increase across the sample to
be evaluated.
Table 6
Individual change between pretest and posttest
No. Student Pre mean Post mean Diff. % change
1 Student No. 1 6.62 9.83 3.21 48.5
2 Student No. 2 4.67 9.50 4.83 103.6
3 Student No. 3 3.67 10.00 6.33 172.7
4 Student No. 4 8.19 9.75 1.56 19.0
5 Student No. 5 7.00 9.67 2.67 38.1
6 Student No. 6 2.50 9.83 7.33 293.3
7 Student No. 7 8.62 9.58 0.96 11.2
8 Student No. 8 9.50 10.00 0.50 5.3
9 Student No. 9 2.50 9.00 6.50 260.0
10 Student No. 10 5.00 8.92 3.92 78.3
11 Student No. 11 5.50 9.25 3.75 68.2
12 Student No. 12 8.26 9.67 1.40 17.0
13 Student No. 13 8.53 10.00 1.47 17.3
14 Student No. 14 3.00 9.50 6.50 216.7
15 Student No. 15 2.67 9.50 6.83 256.3
16 Student No. 16 8.43 10.00 1.57 18.6
17 Student No. 17 3.17 10.00 6.83 215.8
18 Student No. 18 7.45 10.00
2.55 34.2
19 Student No. 19 4.67 10.00 5.33 114.3
20 Student No. 20 4.00 9.75 5.75 143.8
21 Student No. 21 6.45 10.00 3.55 55.0
22 Student No. 22 3.17 9.50 6.33 200.0
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All 22 participants obtained higher posttest scores than pretest scores, indicating that the observed
increase was consistent across the entire sample. The largest absolute increase was 7.33 points, whereas
the smallest increase was 0.50 points. Participants with lower pretest scores generally showed larger
absolute gains, while those who began with comparatively high scores tended to show smaller
increases. This pattern was consistent with the restricted opportunity for further numerical
improvement among students whose initial scores were already close to the upper limit of the scale.
The individual results reinforced the group-level descriptive findings, as the score increase was not
limited to a small subset of participants Rather, every participant showed a positive pretest–posttest
difference, supporting the consistency of the observed change across the sample. Regarding the
research questions, the first was addressed through the descriptive comparison of pretest and posttest
performance. The results showed higher posttest means, lower score dispersion, and a marked shift
toward the upper score range after the intervention.
The second research question was addressed through the paired-samples t test and the Wilcoxon
signed-rank test. Both analyses showed statistically significant differences between pretest and posttest
scores, while the effect-size estimates indicated a large within-group change. The third research
question was addressed through the analysis of the six test parts. All sections showed higher posttest
scores, with the largest numerical gains observed in Parts 5 and 6 and the smallest gain in Part 3.
Overall, the results demonstrated a consistent pretest–posttest increase in reading-comprehension
performance within the observed group. This pattern was reflected in higher posttest scores, reduced
variability, statistically significant paired differences, large within-group effect sizes, and positive
individual change across all participants. Because the study used a one-group pre-experimental design
without a comparison group, the findings should be interpreted as evidence of change within the
sample rather than as definitive causal evidence attributable exclusively to the instructional
intervention.
4. Discussion
The results showed a substantial increase in students’ reading-comprehension performance after the
instructional intervention based on local legends from Pujilí. The group increased from a pretest mean
of 5.62 (SD = 2.36) to a posttest mean of 9.69 (SD = 0.33), with an average gain of 4.08 points. This change
was supported by the paired-samples t test, t(21) = 8.465, p < .001, and the Wilcoxon signed-rank test,
p < .001. The convergence of both analyses provides consistent evidence of higher posttest performance,
although the findings should be interpreted as within-group change rather than definitive causal
evidence.
The findings are consistent with Ismail et al. (2023), who reported that task-based instruction can
support reading performance when learners engage in meaningful activities rather than isolated
exercises. In the present study, students not only answered comprehension items but also predicted
content, identified general meaning, located specific information, compared responses, discussed
interpretations, and reflected on the strategies used. Nguyen (2022) also reported favorable results for
task-based instruction in reading comprehension, while Nastiti et al. (2023) identified improvements
in summarizing, inference-making, and vocabulary interpretation.
These similarities suggest that organizing reading as a sequence of purposeful tasks may
contribute to more active processing of written texts. The findings also relate to Pillaga Riofrío (2021),
who examined fairy tales as resources for reading comprehension and reported improvements in
learners’ interest and understanding. Although fairy tales and local legends represent different
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narrative genres, they share structural features such as characters, settings, actions, conflicts,
sequences, and resolutions.
The present study extends this line of evidence by using local legends from Pujilí as culturally
contextualized narrative materials for EFL reading instruction. This contextualization may be relevant
because the texts connected classroom reading with students’ immediate cultural and territorial
environment. The observed increase is also consistent with Zurita Malliquinga and Castro Bungacho
(2025) and Husnul et al. (2025), who reported improved reading comprehension performance after the
use of skimming and scanning strategies.
In the present intervention, skimming was used to identify general meaning, whereas scanning was
applied to locate specific textual information. However, the observed improvement cannot be
attributed exclusively to these two strategies, because the intervention also incorporated vocabulary
activities, narrative sequencing, collaborative work, teacher feedback, and post-reading reflection.
Therefore, the findings are better interpreted as evidence associated with an integrated instructional
approach rather than the isolated effect of skimming or scanning.
The analysis by test part provides further insight into the pattern of change. Parts 5 and 6 showed
the largest mean gains, whereas Part 3 showed the smallest increase. This pattern appears to be related,
at least in part, to differences in initial performance, since Parts 5 and 6 had the lowest pretest means
and therefore provided greater numerical room for improvement. By contrast, Part 3 began with a
comparatively high pretest mean, which limited the magnitude of possible change within the 0–10
scale. These differences should not be interpreted as evidence that particular parts represented specific
reading strategies or subskills, because the available scoring structure did not establish such one-to-
one correspondence.
Another relevant finding was the marked reduction in score dispersion after the intervention.
Before the intervention, students displayed heterogeneous performance, whereas posttest scores were
concentrated near the upper end of the scale. This pattern may indicate that the structured instructional
sequence helped participants approach reading tasks more consistently. The repeated use of
prediction, global reading, detail search, response comparison, and reflection may have provided
students with a recognizable process for approaching narrative texts.
Gonzalez-Torres and Vargas-Saritama (2025) offer a related perspective by showing that reflective
reading practices can promote engagement and comprehension monitoring. Although the present
study did not employ reading journals, the post-reading reflection component similarly encouraged
learners to revisit meaning, compare interpretations, and consider how comprehension had been
constructed.
The findings can also be discussed in relation to Tsang and Yeung (2024), who identified
relationships among storybook value, reading self-efficacy, vocabulary knowledge, fluency, and
comprehension in young EFL learners. The present study did not measure self-efficacy or motivation,
so direct comparison with those constructs is not possible.
Nevertheless, the use of narrative texts may have supported comprehension by providing coherent
sequences of characters, actions, places, and events that facilitated connections across the text. Hidayat
et al. (2024) similarly emphasized the potential of storytelling-based approaches to support reading
when narrative structure and contextual elements are integrated into instruction.
Although the present study did not focus on digital storytelling, both approaches share an emphasis
on organizing meaning through narrative structure. The pretest results also revealed considerable
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variation in students’ initial performance. This suggests that participants differed in their ability to
identify general meaning, locate details, interpret vocabulary in context, and follow narrative
sequences.
After the intervention, students showed higher and more homogeneous reading-comprehension
scores, suggesting that structured practice may have supported a more systematic approach to the
tasks. The communicative component may also have contributed to this process by allowing students
to compare answers, clarify meanings, and justify interpretations with textual evidence.
The alignment between instructional activities and A2 Flyers-type tasks also requires careful
consideration. Cambridge University Press & Assessment (2024) describes A2 Flyers as involving
vocabulary, short texts, specific information, and basic comprehension demands. In the present study,
the intervention and assessment shared similar levels, task characteristics, and reading demands.
This alignment may have facilitated students’ understanding of what was expected during the
posttest. However, it also introduces a potential task-familiarity effect, because gains may reflect both
improved reading comprehension and increased familiarity with the assessment format. The
magnitude of the observed change was large, with Cohen’s dz = 1.805 and Hedges' g = 2.339.
These values were consistent with the substantial difference between pretest and posttest means.
However, the effect-size estimates should be interpreted cautiously because the posttest showed
restricted variability and strong concentration near the maximum score. This pattern indicates a ceiling
effect, particularly in Parts 5 and 6, where all participants reached the maximum mean score.
Such concentration may inflate standardized effect-size estimates and limit the instrument’s ability
to distinguish higher levels of performance. Future studies could address this issue by using
assessments with a broader range of difficulty, delayed posttests, or additional transfer tasks. These
approaches would help determine whether the observed changes remain stable over time and extend
to less familiar reading contexts.
The research design also imposes an important limitation on interpretation. Because the study used
one intact group without random assignment or a comparison group, alternative explanations for the
observed change cannot be ruled out. These may include increased familiarity with the test format,
regular classroom exposure, maturation, repeated practice, and teacher feedback during the four-week
intervention.
Accordingly, the findings should not be presented as proof that the intervention alone caused the
improvement or that it would outperform other instructional approaches. Despite these limitations,
the study provides practical evidence that a structured reading sequence based on local legends can
be feasibly integrated into EFL instruction.
Its contribution lies not only in the increase in scores but also in the organization of reading into
observable classroom actions: prediction, skimming, scanning, connecting events, discussing answers,
and reflecting on meaning. Taken together, the findings are consistent with previous evidence on task-
based instruction, reading strategies, reflective reading practices, and the use of narrative materials.
At the same time, the interpretation should remain cautious because of the pre-experimental design,
close alignment between instruction and assessment, and the ceiling effect observed in the posttest.
The strongest contribution of the study, therefore, lies in the integration of culturally situated narrative
texts with communicative, strategic, and task-based reading practices within a coherent instructional
sequence.
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5. Conclusions
The use of local legends from Pujilí as part of an integrated pedagogical intervention was associated
with higher reading comprehension performance among the participating students. After the
intervention, the group obtained higher posttest scores, and all participants showed positive pretest–
posttest differences.
These findings suggest that culturally contextualized narrative texts can be meaningfully
incorporated into structured EFL reading activities. However, the observed change should be
interpreted as a within-group improvement rather than as definitive evidence that the local legends
alone caused the increase in performance.
The intervention combined local legends, skimming, scanning, communicative interaction, task-
based activities, vocabulary work, sequencing, and post-reading reflection. Therefore, the
improvement observed in the study cannot be attributed exclusively to skimming and scanning,
because these strategies formed part of a broader instructional sequence.
Within this integrated approach, skimming supported the identification of general meaning, main
situations, and overall narrative structure, whereas scanning facilitated the location of specific
information. Their pedagogical value should therefore be understood in combination with the other
components of the intervention rather than as isolated explanatory factors.
The organization of instruction through Communicative Language Teaching and Task-Based
Language Teaching promoted active participation in the reading process. Students had
opportunities to exchange ideas, clarify interpretations, compare answers, justify responses, and
construct meaning collaboratively from the texts.
This structure transformed reading from an exclusively individual activity into a guided process
that combined individual comprehension with interaction and reflection. The results also showed
that posttest performance was more homogeneous than pretest performance, suggesting that the
structured reading sequence may have helped students approach the assessment tasks more
consistently.
Nevertheless, this interpretation should remain cautious because the study used a one-group
pretest–posttest pre-experimental design without a comparison group. Consequently, other factors
such as task familiarity, repeated practice, classroom exposure, maturation, and teacher feedback
cannot be completely excluded as alternative explanations for the observed improvement.
The concentration of several posttest scores near the upper limit of the scale also indicated a
possible ceiling effect, which reduced the ability of the assessment to distinguish among students
with higher final performance. For this reason, future studies should consider comparison groups,
larger samples, delayed posttests, and assessments with a broader difficulty range.
Such designs would allow researchers to examine whether the observed gains are maintained
over time and whether they can be attributed more confidently to the instructional approach.
Overall, the findings provide evidence of substantial improvement in students’ reading
comprehension performance following an integrated intervention based on local legends from Pujilí.
Its principal contribution lies in combining culturally situated narrative texts with strategic,
communicative, and task-based reading practices within a coherent instructional sequence. This
approach may represent a relevant pedagogical alternative for supporting EFL reading
comprehension while connecting language learning with learners’ local cultural context.
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Transparencia
Conflicto de interés
Los autores declaran que no existen conflictos de interés de naturaleza alguna como parte de la
presente investigación.
Fuente de financiamiento
Los autores financiaron completamente la investigación.
Declaración sobre el uso de Inteligencia Artificial (IA)
Durante la elaboración de este artículo se utilizó inteligencia artificial como apoyo técnico y analítico
para la revisión lingüística, la corrección gramatical, la claridad expositiva, la organización de ideas y
el análisis de la información, bajo supervisión y validación humana permanente. No se empleó para
generar contenido científico original, argumentos, resultados, interpretar hallazgos o producir
conclusiones, ni para sustituir el juicio crítico. La responsabilidad sobre la integridad, veracidad y
contenido final del estudio recae exclusivamente en quien o quienes suscriben el artículo.
Contribución de autoría
Laydi Anabel Morocho Chipugsi: Conceptualización, metodología, validación, análisis formal,
investigación, visualización, redacción - preparación del borrador original, financiamiento,
administración del proyecto, recursos, Supervisión.
Mónica Lisbeth Guato Pila: Conceptualización, metodología, software, validación, análisis formal,
investigación, gestión de datos, visualización, redacción - preparación del borrador original,
financiamiento, recursos.
José Ignacio Andrade Morán: Conceptualización, validación, investigación, gestión de datos, redacción
- revisión y edición.
Los autores contribuyeron activamente en el análisis de los resultados, revisión y aprobación del
manuscrito final
